Anatolia is rich in history and culture. Therefore, throughout history, its wealth and invaluable artifacts have attracted the interest of neighboring regions. Many civilizations have risen and fallen in this area, leaving behind a legacy of significant relics. This cultural heritage has also made Anatolia a target for looters and smugglers, leading to the widespread theft and illegal export of its artifacts. Numerous pieces from Anatolia's history — including ancient sculptures, coins, intricate mosaics, and inscriptions — have been removed and transported to foreign lands, often ending up in private collections or prestigious museums worldwide. To shed light on the significance of lost artifacts, this article will focus on the region of Antalya, examining the rich historical periods and the artifacts that define them. Investigating the artifacts stolen from various eras of Antalya will highlight the importance of these treasures and the ongoing efforts for their reclamation.
ANCIENT LYCIA (6th century BCE - 4th century CE)
Antalya, Türkiye, known for its scenic Mediterranean coastline and rich history, was once part of ancient Lycia — a region that flourished from the 15th century BC until its integration into the Roman Empire in the 1st century BC. Situated in southwestern Anatolia, Lycia encompassed most of the provinces of Antalya and Muğla, along with parts of Burdur and Isparta. Lycia’s landscape was characterized by rugged mountains and fertile valleys, boasting significant coastal cities such as Patara, Xanthos, Myra, and Phaselis, pivotal in regional trade and politics.
This era witnessed a distinctive cultural synthesis and notable artistic and architectural advancements. Lycia was distinguished by advanced urban planning, elaborate tombs, and intricate rock-cut structures. Antalya, known as Attalia during this period, served as a key hub for maritime trade and cultural exchange within Lycia, making the city lively and cosmopolitan. The Lycians developed their own language and script, reflecting the richness of their cultural identity.
Their art and architecture show influences from both indigenous Anatolian traditions, such as rock-cut tombs, monumental sarcophagi, intricate relief sculptures, and advanced metalworking techniques, as well as external contacts, initially with the Greeks and later with the Persians. The Lycian civilization left behind numerous artifacts providing insights into their way of life, beliefs, and artistic achievements. However, many of these cultural treasures have been plundered or illegally exported, leading to significant losses in Antalya's cultural history.
In the following sections, we will highlight some of the most famous artifacts from this era that have been stolen, discussing their historical significance and ongoing efforts for their recovery.
Nereid Monument
One of the most striking artifacts of the Lycian period is the Nereid Monument. This grand tomb is named for the statues of the Nereids, the sea nymphs, which embellish the monument. These figures, rooted in Greek mythology, were believed to aid sailors in surviving hazardous journeys.
Discovered in the ancient site of Xanthos (modern-day Kaş), the Nereid Monument represents the largest and earliest temple-like tomb in Anatolia. Around 390 BCE, it was constructed for Erbinna, the ruler of Lycian Xanthos under the Achaemenid Empire. Despite being Lycian rather than Greek, Erbinna chose a Greek Ionic style for his burial monument, which was elevated on a distinctive podium reflecting local burial traditions. The intricate sculptures on the monument blend Greek and Lycian artistic elements, illustrating the cultural diversity of Lycia during that era.
In 1840, British archaeologist Charles Fellows discovered the monument and transported a significant portion to London’s British Museum after obtaining permission from the Ottoman authorities during a period of Ottoman decline and instability. This removal ignited controversy, highlighting the widespread appropriation of cultural treasures during that time. Since then, Türkiye has pursued the return of such artifacts, advocating for their repatriation to preserve cultural heritage and historical context.
Efforts to recover the Nereid Monument began in earnest with the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1926 but yielded limited results. In the 1970s, Türkiye initiated new diplomatic efforts, followed by more organized campaigns from the Ministry of Culture in the 1980s. Even into the 21st century, Türkiye has sought international support and pursued legal avenues to reclaim the monument, yet the British Museum has not responded positively to these requests. The Nereid Monument thus stands as a poignant reminder of the pillaged history of the Lycian civilization.
Harpy Monument
Another significant antiquity from Xanthos is the Harpy Monument, dating back to 480-470 BCE and discovered in 1838 near the theater at Xanthos. This monument consists of marble panels intricately carved in high relief and is perched atop a tall, square-based column. It is believed to have been associated either with a Persian ruler or with Kybernis, the governor of Lycia at that time.
The reliefs on the so-called Harpy Tomb provide an exciting insight into Lycian art and mythology since they depict scenes of humans with animals and mythological figures. These slabs are carved in the form of half-relief, peculiar to them, and are named after the Harpies, the mythical winged women. It is now generally accepted, nonetheless, that the figures are merely symbolic representations associated with the afterlife rather than true harpies. The scenes presumably embody ideas about the soul’s passage or conduct to the other world, thereby giving a clue regarding the ancient Lycian beliefs about life after death.
The Harpy Monument, unearthed in 1838 at Xanthos by archaeologist Charles Fellows and subsequently transported to the British Museum with Ottoman approval, remains a significant exhibit today. The monument’s marble panels, now housed in London, contrast with its original column still standing at Xanthos, symbolizing a cultural legacy that persists despite removal. Türkiye continues to seek the return of such artifacts, engaging in diplomatic and legal efforts to reclaim its cultural heritage integral to its historical context. The government of Türkiye collaborated with international agencies and initiated a public awareness campaign. Despite these efforts, the panels of the Harpy Monument remain housed in the British Museum, highlighting the complex challenges of cultural restitution and the ongoing struggle to return ancient treasures to their original cultural and historical place.
Trysa Heroon
The Trysa Heroon, a 4th-century BCE funerary monument located in the ancient city of Trysa near modern Demre in Antalya Province, is a prominent example of ancient Lycian architecture. Constructed primarily from local limestone, it stands as a testament to the grandeur of ancient Lycia. The Heroon was erected in honor of a distinguished individual, potentially a local hero or dignitary. Notably, it is renowned for its friezes depicting epic mythological battles and heroic legends. These reliefs vividly portray contests between Greeks and Amazons, as well as conflicts between Centaurs and Lapiths, among other mythic scenes, offering insight into the artistic and cultural milieu of ancient Lycia.
Payava Sarcophagus
The Payava Sarcophagus, dating from 375-362 BCE and originating in ancient Lycia, is a large limestone tomb adorned with intricate bas-reliefs. These reliefs depict scenes from the life of Payava, a prominent figure in Lycian history, including ceremonial events and symbolic representations of his status. This artwork offers valuable insights into the cultural and social customs of ancient Lycia, showcasing the sophistication of their funerary art and the importance placed on commemorating individuals through elaborate tomb decorations. The detailed carvings are supplemented by inscriptions in the Lycian script, shedding light on various aspects of cultural and artistic life among the Lycians.
Discovered in 1884 during the peak of the European archaeological interest in the Ottoman Empire by the renowned British archaeologist Charles Fellows, the Payava Sarcophagus was excavated. Fellows took advantage of the generally lax regulatory environment of the time and transported the sarcophagus from its original location in the ancient city of Xanthos to England. Since then, the British Museum has displayed the upper three tiers of the sarcophagus, while its base remains in Türkiye. The Turkish government has made significant efforts to reclaim the Payava Sarcophagus as part of a broader campaign for the return of cultural artifacts looted during the colonial era of the 19th century. The "Eserler Ait Olduğu Yerde Güzeldir" project by ATAV highlights Türkiye's commitment to recovering its looted heritage. Through such diplomatic and legal efforts, there is an attempt to return these sarcophagi to their rightful historical context and recognize their cultural value as ancient treasures.
Elmalı Coins
The Elmalı Coins represent a broad collection of nearly 1,900 silver coins minted during the 5th century BCE, offering an interesting insight into the economic and political scenario of ancient Lycia. These coins belonged to the monetary system of the Attic-Delian League and were issued at a critical time in Greek and Persian history. Hence, these coins were very strong symbols of united resistance and victory against the Persian threat by the Athenian-headed League of city-states. These coins are well-known because of their high historical and scientific value, along with striking designs and inscriptions that reflect refinement in ancient monetary practices.
In the late 19th century, illicit excavations occurred in the district of Elmalı, Antalya, Türkiye, resulting in the smuggling of approximately 1,900 gold coins from the region. These artifacts were clandestinely sent to Europe and subsequently dispersed among private collectors and institutions. By the early 20th century, a significant number of these coins had found their way into private collections and museums in the United States and Switzerland.
A notable incident in the restitution effort occurred in late 2021 when a collection of Elmalı Coins appeared at a Sotheby's auction in New York. Turkish authorities intervened after confirming the coins' origin from the Elmalı collection. Following extensive examination and legal proceedings, the Massachusetts Court's decision in 2022 affirmed Türkiye's ownership of the Elmalı Coins. This ruling marked a crucial validation of Türkiye's claim, both legally and ethically, to its stolen cultural heritage, significantly advancing restitution efforts.
Subsequently, 17 coins were returned to Türkiye in 2022 through negotiations facilitated by the court ruling, underscoring the progress made in repatriating looted artifacts to their country of origin. These coins have been skillfully cleaned and conserved; currently, they are displayed at the Antalya Museum, serving as historical artifacts and symbols for ongoing cultural reclamation efforts.
Orphan Child from Myra Rock Tombs
A child relief from the Myra Rock Tombs, also known as the Orphan Child from Myra, dates back to ancient Lycia in the 4th century BCE. Originally found at the Myra archaeological site in Demre, Antalya, the relief is currently exhibited at the Athens Museum.
According to archaeologist Prof. Dr. Nevzat Çevik from Akdeniz University, one of the renowned reliefs from Myra's impressive rock cemetery, the Orphan Child from Myra, was carved from the rocks and taken to Athens in 1886. Çevik described this artifact as an "orphan," lamenting its separation from its hometown and family, and its captivity in Athens. He underscored the importance of returning the relief to Myra to restore what he views as a universal goal of completeness for the site.
Until 2012, the Turkish government had not officially pursued the return of the Orphan Child relief. However, archaeologist Nevzat Çevik contacted the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, securing their support for an appeal to repatriate the artifact. In 2018, the Antalya Promotion Foundation (ATAV) launched the "Artifacts are Beautiful Where They Belong" campaign in Antalya. The campaign aimed to facilitate the return of eight smuggled historical artifacts, including the Orphan Child relief, back to Antalya. As part of this initiative, an exhibition was organized at Antalya Airport International Arrivals Terminal, featuring images of seven artifacts and a replica of the Nereid Monument.
The artifacts showcased in the exhibition included the Nereid Monument, the Harpy Monument, the Tomb of Payava, the Xanthos F-G-H Monument, the Heroon of Trysa (stolen from the ancient city of Perge), the Sion Treasure, a relief of a child from the Myra rock tombs, and the Tyke sculpture (stolen from the ancient city of Perge). Each visitor to the exhibition received a questionnaire asking, "Do you think historical artifacts are beautiful in their homeland?" with options for "yes" or "no". Moreover, those who said ‘yes’ received copper copies of the Elmalı coins, currently on display at the Antalya Museum.
The foundation hoped to reach 1 million signatures to submit to UNESCO, believing it would be a significant step towards the artifacts' return. The project proceeded on the change.org.tr website, and by 2022, they had collected 22,000 signatures, with 27,279 by June 2024, prompting the foundation to reconsider their goal and instead aim for 100,000 signatures before submitting their campaign to UNESCO.
ATAV President Yeliz Gül Ege highlighted that "all citizens of the world can vote for the campaign online." She also mentioned that artifacts returned through the efforts of the Culture and Tourism Ministry, involving anti-smuggling measures, foreign relations, and diplomatic procedures, are exhibited in their museum. Ege expressed hope inspired by artifacts already returned and emphasized their ongoing efforts to reclaim Antalya's own artifacts. She noted the initiative began with the "My Hometown Antalya" calendar, featuring smuggled artifacts and related information, followed by an exhibition at Antalya Airport.
The child relief from Myra once again demonstrates how European engineers, missionaries, and diplomats stole historical artifacts from the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, taking advantage of the empire's vulnerability before its collapse. Despite the Ottoman Empire once hosting one of the world’s richest archaeological heritages, many artifacts were smuggled and are now displayed in European countries. However, there remains hope for their return, as efforts from organizations like ATAV, the government, and passionate individuals advocate for their repatriation.
Xanthos F, G, H Monument
Currently displayed in the British Museum, the Xanthos Monument dates back to 390-380 BC and was discovered in Xanthos, the capital of ancient Lycia, which was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1988 alongside its neighboring ancient city Letoon. Xanthos is notably renowned for its funerary art, particularly its rock-cut tombs.
The monument, however, was smuggled in 1841 during the Ottoman Empire’s period of decline, to the UK by British archaeologist Charles Fellows. Fellows began his journey from Greece and Italy in 1832 and eventually arrived in Lycia, Xanthos, where he documented his findings in journals such as "A Journal Written During an Excursion in Asia Minor" and illustrated his discoveries along the way. He is credited with discovering ruins of ancient Lycian cities and transporting a wide range of marble statues to England, acquiring 27 pieces of statuary for the British Museum in 1844, which earned him a knighthood in 1845.
ROMAN IMPERIAL PERIOD (27 B.C.E. to C.E. 476)
During the Roman Imperial era, Attalia (modern-day Antalya) underwent significant transformations along the picturesque Mediterranean shores of Türkiye, spanning from 27 BCE to 476 CE under Roman rule. The city evolved into a crucial administrative, commercial, and cultural center within the Roman Empire. Roman engineers enhanced Attalia with advanced infrastructure, including aqueducts, baths, and theaters, showcasing the grandeur of Roman architecture. Additionally, forums were constructed, highlighting their engineering expertise and contributing to the city's urban development.
The Romans extensively remodeled Attalia, fortifying it with imposing walls and adorning it with monumental gates such as Hadrian's Gate, built in 130 AD to honor Emperor Hadrian's visit. The influence of Rome is prominently evident in Attalia's art and architecture, demonstrating significant Roman contributions to the city's cultural and structural development. Excavations have revealed mosaics, sculptures, and inscriptions that exhibit a high level of artistic skill and a blend of local and imperial styles. The theaters and amphitheaters hosted various performances and gladiator games, reflecting the Roman emphasis on public entertainment and civic life.
Despite these cultural riches, numerous valuable artifacts from this period have been stolen or traded illicitly, resulting in a significant loss of Antalya's cultural heritage. Many of these artifacts, including fragile mosaics, statues, and coins, have been removed from their original contexts, impairing our understanding of Attalia's Roman past.
Sarcophagus of Heracles
Unlike the majority of smuggled artifacts, the Sarcophagus of Heracles was indeed returned to Türkiye from Switzerland after 50 years. On September 24, 2017, the long-awaited opening ceremony of the Sarcophagus of Heracles took place at the Antalya Museum, attended by the Culture and Tourism Minister at that time, Numan Kurtulmuş.
The sarcophagus, which portrays the 12 labors of Hercules, was carved in the 2nd century CE, illustrating features from the ancient Roman period. Surprisingly, in 2011, a Swiss government official contacted the Turkish government, sharing information that a Roman-period marble sarcophagus preserved in a warehouse in Geneva was likely taken from Türkiye and invited Turkish authorities to collaborate in examining its origin.
It was subsequently discovered that the sarcophagus had been registered at the Geneva Freeport customs office under "Phoenix Ancient Art," owned by the Aboutaam family, Lebanese antiquities dealers based in Geneva. It had been stored in a warehouse belonging to Inanna Art Services (IAS) until spring 2010 when discussions began about selling the artifact to the Gandur Foundation. Swiss billionaire and art collector Jean Claude Gandur intended to purchase the sarcophagus and donate it to the Musée d’Art et d’Histoire in Geneva. However, before finalizing the sale, Gandur requested inspections by Marc-André Haldimann, head of the museum’s archaeology department, and Jean-Yves Marin, the museum’s director, at Geneva Freeport.
During the investigation, concerns arose regarding the suspicious documentation tracing the object only back to the Aboutaam family's collection since 2002, which raised suspicions of possible illegal activity. As a result, the sale to the Gandur Foundation did not proceed. In December 2010, the Swiss Federal Customs Administration inspected Phoenix Ancient Art's inventory, leading to unanswered questions about the artifact's provenance. Swiss authorities subsequently impounded the sarcophagus pending further investigation, and upon informing Turkish authorities, a public prosecutor in Antalya initiated an investigation.
In 2011, it was determined that the sarcophagus had been illegally excavated in the 1960s in Perge, Antalya. This discovery led to a collaborative investigation between Swiss and Turkish prosecution offices, culminating in a Swiss prosecutor visiting Perge in 2013 to meet with Turkish experts and archaeologists. A comprehensive 70-page report was completed, based on evidence from witnesses and experts, confirming that the Hercules sarcophagus originated from Perge, Türkiye.
In May 2016, the Geneva Court of Justice officially ruled for the repatriation of the sarcophagus to Turkey. Initially, Phoenix Ancient Art objected, but eventually withdrew their objection, resulting in the successful repatriation of the sarcophagus to its hometown of Antalya.
Weary Heracles Statue
The Weary Heracles Statue, purchased by the Boston Museum of Fine Arts in 1982, is a Roman replica of the original bronze statue "Hercules Farnese" created by the 4th-century Greek sculptor Lysippos. Standing at a towering height of 3.15 meters (approximately 10 feet 5 inches), the statue depicts the muscular Greek hero Heracles leaning on his club, draped in a lion-skin, conveying exhaustion from his legendary 12 Labors. The sorrowful and fatigued expression of Heracles reflects characteristics of the late Classical and early Hellenistic periods.
The lower part of the Weary Heracles statue was unearthed during archaeological excavations in the Ancient City of Perge in 1980 by Professor Jale İnan. İnan, recognizing the artistry of the statue, proposed naming it "Heracles Farnese of Perge," suggesting it surpassed other well-known copies in artistic quality, including the Hercules Farnese.
In 1990, it was discovered that a statue displayed at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts was the upper part of the Weary Heracles. Details surrounding how, when, and by whom the statue was smuggled out of Türkiye remain unclear. Upon this revelation, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism initiated efforts to address the issue, engaging in negotiations that spanned over two decades.
In a significant development, a memorandum of understanding was signed on September 22, 2011, during which the statue, which had been kept in storage since 2007, was agreed to be returned to Türkiye. The statue was formally handed over to President Erdoğan and his delegation while they were in New York for a UN conference.
The upper part of the statue arrived in Türkiye aboard Erdogan's plane on September 25, 2011. Efforts were made to reunite the parts of the statue, which were then displayed at the Antalya Museum starting on October 9, 2011. Known as "Weary Heracles," the statue garnered significant attention, with a total of 315,208 visitors recorded by the end of 2013.
Thus, the 1,800-year-old Roman statue, Weary Heracles, holds great significance as one of the rare artifacts returned to Türkiye after being smuggled decades ago. The public's keen interest in the statue following its return underscores not only its tourist appeal but also increasing awareness among people regarding smuggled historical artifacts. This suggests there is hope for the return of other smuggled artifacts in the future.
Tyche Sculpture
Smuggled from the Ancient City of Perge, Antalya in the 1960s, the Tyche Statue is currently exhibited at the Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium in Brussels. The statue portrays Tyche, the goddess of good luck and fortune in Greek mythology, who gained popularity beyond the Classical era as many cities began to venerate her as their patron deity. Artworks from the Hellenistic and Roman periods commonly depict Tyche adorned with her distinctive mural crown, holding a rudder and cornucopia. She is often described as 'wise' and 'all-powerful', with her Roman counterpart being the goddess Fortuna.
During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many cities dedicated themselves to Tyche, believing that honoring her ensured good governance through luck.
In 2015, researchers from Akdeniz University, Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, and the University of Bourgogne-Franche Comté published an article titled "Stone Blocks with Inscriptions Found in the Western Street." The article mentions an inscription bearing the name "T(itus) Fl(avius) Clemens Pelopidianus," associated with a noble family that once lived in Perge. Interestingly, the same inscription was found on the base of the Tyche sculpture in Brussels, leading researchers to conclude that the statue originated from Perge. Armed with this discovery, the professors notified the Ministry of Culture and Tourism for further action.
Additionally, Mustafa Demirel, the Director of the Antalya Museum, mentioned encountering the words "T(itus) Fl(avius) Clemens Pelopidianus" on an Aphrodite sculpture discovered in the region.
Furthermore, another Tyche sculpture was discovered in Perge in 2014 and is on display at the Antalya Museum, further strengthening the possibility of smuggling.
Despite the Ministry of Culture and Tourism contacting the Brussels museum in 2016, their efforts to repatriate the statue have not been successful. The museum has refused to return the statue, arguing that it has been part of their collection since 1968, just before the 1970 UNESCO convention that criminalizes illicit trafficking of cultural property and prohibits it. The Ministry is considering legal action if Belgium continues to resist without presenting counter-evidence. Moreover, the Tyche Statue is among the artifacts for which ATAV runs a petition, along with the Nereid Monument, Harpy Monument, Payava Sarcophagus, Xanthos F, G, H Monument, Trysa Heroon, Orphan Child from Myra Rock Tombs, and Sion Treasure.
Sion Treasure
The Treasure of Sion was accidentally discovered in the Ancient City of Korydalla in Kumluca, Antalya in 1963 by a shepherd grazing her goat when her feet got stuck in a hole. Believed to have been crafted in Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) during the First Justinian Period of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium), the treasure was gifted to the Sion Monastery by Bishop Eutykhianos. Dating back to the 6th century AD, it consists of liturgical church items made from gold and silver.
Currently, 37 pieces of the treasure are displayed at the Antalya Museum, but the majority of it was illicitly looted, traded, and sold to the Dumbarton Oaks Museum in the US. Notably, in 1963, George Zacos, known for his involvement in international artifact smuggling, sold the treasure to retired US Ambassador to Argentina Robert Woods Bliss and his wife Mildred Barnes Bliss for a million dollars—the same year the treasure was discovered. Subsequently, in 1967, the treasure was first exhibited at the Dumbarton Oaks Museum in Washington, established by the Bliss couple.
Diplomatic efforts were launched in 1967 but did not yield any results favorable to the return of the Sion treasure. Initially, the museum asserted that the treasure was bought with the best intentions. Then, in 1973, the museum suggested taking the rest of the pieces from Antalya to Boston for repair, offering to display these artifacts in the Oaks Museum for 100 years. Since the offer was rejected by the Turkish authorities, the parties couldn’t reach common ground, and the artifact still remains at the Oaks Museum.
In conclusion, while this article covers only a limited number of smuggled artifacts from Antalya, many more artifacts have been illegally excavated and traded from Türkiye, posing significant threats to cultural heritage and integrity. Overall, despite Türkiye housing numerous precious historical artifacts, a significant number of them have been smuggled and stolen during the Ottoman Empire's decline period, ending up displayed in European museums such as the British Museum and the Pergamon Museum.
Therefore, recognizing the significance of these artifacts and making efforts for their repatriation becomes critically important to safeguard our cultural and historical wealth and combat smuggling and trafficking.
Written by Ayşe Defne Orhan & Ece Akdoğan
Edited by Derya Yener & Emir Şahin